Canada remains a popular destination for expats, thanks to its thriving economy, strong public services, and high quality of life that appeals to globally mobile, business-minded individuals. Whether it’s the lively cities or the diverse culture, many find that the advantages of living in Canada far outweigh the downsides.

Below are some of the pros and cons that you may experience living in Canada.

Culture in Canada

+ PRO: Multicultural society that is welcoming to immigrants

Culture in Canada is diverse and vibrant, thanks to a multicultural society that has been shaped by immigration. The government’s commitment to inclusivity, enshrined in the Canadian Multiculturalism Act, promotes cultural diversity. You’ll find multicultural communities across the country well accustomed to integrating newcomers, which helps ease the transition. This makes a big difference when settling in and finding a place to belong.

Diversity and Inclusion in Canada

Working in Canada

+ PRO: A strong employment market

Canada offers a strong and welcoming employment market, particularly for those with skills in demand. Many Western nations have faced record unemployment, but Canada has remained resilient, actively bringing in new arrivals. If you have the right skills – especially in sectors like healthcare, technology, and skilled trades – you’ll find the economic climate here incredibly favourable.

Finding a Job in Canada

Climate in Canada

- CON: Harsh weather conditions

The climate in Canada is incredibly varied due to the country’s vast size. You’ll experience everything from freezing Arctic conditions in the northern territories to milder maritime climates along the coasts. In many places, winters are severe – you may spend months shovelling snow, scraping ice off your car, or battling freezing temperatures.

For those looking for a more temperate climate, Vancouver and other coastal areas of British Columbia have milder winters thanks to their proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Southern Ontario, including cities like Toronto, also offers relatively milder weather than northern parts.

Climate and Weather Charts in Canada

Public services in Canada

+ PRO: High-quality public education system

The quality of public education in Canada is generally high, but it varies by province. Some of the top public schools in Canada are located in Ontario and British Columbia, and Quebec has a unique focus on French-language instruction.

Education and Schools in Canada

- CON: Bureaucracy can be time-consuming

Dealing with bureaucracy as a newcomer can feel like jumping through endless hoops. The process can take time, whether it’s applying for health cards, setting up bank accounts, or sorting out tax numbers. Thankfully, digital tools and online services have simplified many aspects of these processes, although challenges still exist. Ensuring you have all the necessary documents and seeking guidance from local services can ease this burden considerably.

+ PRO: Excellent healthcare

Healthcare in Canada is high-quality and accessible, thanks to the universal healthcare system known as Medicare. As a citizen or permanent resident, you are entitled to free health insurance. Canada’s healthcare system includes advanced medical facilities and well-trained healthcare professionals, ensuring top-notch care.

Provinces offer different coverage options, and while some services like dentistry and optometry are not included, you can get private insurance to cover those. Access to Medicare varies – some provinces like Alberta offer immediate coverage for newcomers, while others like British Columbia and Ontario have a waiting period.

Healthcare System and Health Insurance in Canada

Cost of living in Canada

- CON: An expensive place to live

The cost of living in Canada can be quite high, which might come as an initial shock. Cities like Vancouver and Toronto regularly rank among the world’s most expensive. Housing costs are particularly steep, driven by high demand and limited supply.

Newcomers often underestimate certain expenses, such as utilities during winter, transport costs, and groceries. Public transport is a great way to save money instead of owning a car, especially in cities like Toronto and Vancouver.

Want to learn more about managing the costs? Here’s more on the Cost of Living in Canada and the Banking and Tax System in Canada.

Accommodation in Canada

+ PRO: Great standard of accommodation

Accommodation in Canada comes in various forms, including apartments, condos, and standalone houses – all generally of high quality. Compared to many European cities, apartments here are more spacious. If you’re moving with your family or simply need more space, finding suitable accommodation is typically not an issue outside of major urban hotspots.

Accommodation in Canada

– CON: Housing is extremely expensive

Due to a mismatch between housing demand and supply, Canada has one of the world’s most expensive property markets. If you’re open to living in smaller cities or away from the city centre, you’ll find that housing becomes more affordable. Smaller towns and regions offer much more value for money, so it’s worth considering these if budget is a concern.

The rental market is competitive, especially in larger cities. Expect to see sustained upward pressure on rent prices as demand continues to outstrip supply. Government programmes like the First-Time Home Buyer Incentive (FTHBI) can also be beneficial if you’re planning to purchase your first home.

Safety in Canada

+ PRO: Safety

Safety in Canada is one of its biggest draws. You don’t have to worry much about crime, even in major cities. Crime rates are low, and the Canadian police force is professional, well-respected, and effective. In cities like Ottawa, Quebec City, and Calgary, crime is minimal, adding to the sense of security.

You’ll find that Canada’s safe environment makes it easy to settle in and feel at home. It’s common to see children playing in parks and people jogging alone, even after dark – something that speaks volumes about the peace of mind you can expect here.

Canada is one of the world’s most progressive countries and is home to a diverse populace made up of people from all over the globe. That said, there is still room for more progress in certain areas. Read on to learn more about inclusion and diversity in Canada.

Accessibility in Canada

The Canadian government prioritises accessibility – in 2019, the country adopted the Accessible Canada Act (ACA), which aims to make Canada a barrier-free environment by 2040. The ACA has established a framework for identifying and removing barriers across various sectors, including transport, employment, and the built environment.

Since its adoption, there have been significant strides towards creating a more accessible society. For instance, the Accessible Transportation for Persons with Disabilities Regulations, introduced between 2020 and 2022, set legally binding requirements for air, rail, marine, and bus services to ensure more accessible travel options.

Accessibility standards in Canada vary from city to city. Vancouver places a strong emphasis on public transport accessibility and inclusive public spaces, while Toronto focuses heavily on improving its transit systems. Montreal is actively upgrading public transport and cultural venues, although some challenges remain due to older infrastructure.

Getting Around in Vancouver
Getting Around in Toronto
Getting Around in Montreal

Further reading

Canadian Transport Agency Accessible Transportation Guides 
Parks Canada Accessibility Guide 
Wheelchair Travel in Canada

LGBTQ+ in Canada

Canada is one of the world’s most progressive nations when it comes to protecting the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals. In 2006, Canada became the fourth country in the world to legalise same-sex marriage. Same-sex couples are allowed to adopt, and conversion therapy is banned.

There are no surgical requirements for changing your legal gender, and there are provisions for non-binary or intersex individuals, who can choose ‘X’ as their legal gender rather than ‘F’ or ‘M’. Discrimination based on sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression is prohibited. The country also recognises LGBTQ+ discrimination as grounds for seeking refugee status in Canada.

Despite strong legal protections, the rise of right-wing conservatism has led to challenges for the LGBTQ+ community, including increased rhetoric against LGBTQ+ rights and heightened discrimination, particularly in rural areas and in regions where conservative values are more prevalent.

To counter these negative sentiments, the Federal 2SLGBTQI+ Action Plan was launched in 2022. This plan focuses on advancing rights and improving outcomes for LGBTQ+ Canadians through community engagement and targeted actions. Not only that, amendments to existing human rights legislation have strengthened protections based on gender identity and sexual orientation.

Further reading

Egale 
Rainbow Railroad 
Rainbow Resource Centre

Gender equality in Canada

Gender equality in Canada is upheld by several robust laws, including the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Employment Equity Act, and the Pay Equity Act. The government is actively working to address gender disparities, particularly in wages and representation.

The Pay Equity Act ensures equal pay for work of equal value in federally regulated sectors. This requires employers to assess and correct pay disparities, ensuring gender does not dictate how much you earn. More wage transparency initiatives mean larger employers must report their pay data, helping to uncover and address inequalities.

Gender inequality, however, is still a reality in some industries. Sectors like natural resources, construction, and finance are particularly male-dominated, with significant pay gaps persisting. Regions such as Alberta also show wider disparities, whereas provinces like Quebec fare better in terms of gender parity. Progress is being made, but the journey is far from over.

Further reading

Women and Gender Equality in Canada

Women in leadership in Canada

Although there are a fair number of women in leadership positions in Canada, there are still noticeably more men in such positions. Roughly a third of management positions are held by women, occupying just over 30 percent of senior-management-level roles. Board membership remains predominantly male, with 18 percent of board members being female.

Several initiatives are in place to increase female representation in leadership roles. For instance, the Canadian Women in Local Leadership (CanWILL) programme, which ended in 2024, supported women’s participation in municipal governance. The Women’s Leadership Initiative helps women in sectors like real estate through networking and mentorship opportunities.

Further reading

Canadian Women’s Foundation
Women’s Leadership Initiative

Mental health awareness in Canada

Mental illness in Canada is a serious problem, with one in three Canadians being affected by mental illness in their lifetime. Although the country’s universal healthcare system covers various forms of treatment for mental illness, waitlists can be extremely long, ranging from weeks to years in extreme cases.

As an expat, you may face a higher risk of mental illness compared to local populations, particularly depression and substance use disorders. This is largely due to the stress, loneliness, and isolation that often come with major life changes like moving to a foreign country.

On average, Canadians can expect to wait nearly six months from a general practitioner referral to treatment by a psychiatrist. Wait times can vary significantly by province; residents in British Columbia or Newfoundland and Labrador may wait over a year for specialised care, while those in Prince Edward Island may have wait times of less than four weeks.

It’s important to have adequate insurance that allows you to seek immediate treatment in private healthcare rather than waiting for public system services. Employers are becoming more aware of the importance of good mental health, and company-supplied health insurance frequently includes provisions for mental healthcare.

Read more: Healthcare and Health Insurance in Canada

Further reading

Canadian Mental Health Association 
Government of Canada – Mental Health and Wellness 
Wellness Together

Unconscious bias education in Canada

Unconscious bias is an implicit set of stereotyped ideas that you may carry about groups of people different from yourself. These ideas are not usually purposefully adopted but rather develop subtly over time, often about groups you rarely come into contact with. As a result, these perceptions tend to be inaccurate and based on assumptions.

Unconscious bias can profoundly affect both personal and work conditions. In the workplace, unchecked bias undermines vital aspects of the company, negatively impacting employee performance, retention, and recruitment.

Many Canadian companies have introduced unconscious bias training as part of their diversity and inclusion programmes. Large corporations and public sector organisations are increasingly integrating such training to foster a more inclusive work culture.

Further reading

Harvard Project Implicit 
NonprofitReady Free Unconscious Bias Training

Diversification of the workforce in Canada

More than a quarter of Canada’s workforce comprises immigrants, most of whom hail from Asia and Europe. Immigrants have always played a fundamental role in Canada’s industrial growth, contributing to innovation and economic development across various sectors, and the portion of immigrants working in the country is continually increasing.

It’s estimated that by 2031, a third of Canada’s workers will be immigrants. In certain cities – namely Toronto and Vancouver – half of the core-aged working population is already made up of immigrants.

Studies show that workplace diversification hugely benefits companies and employees. In recognition of this, many of the largest companies in the country are setting up diversity and inclusion programmes, ensuring that a wide variety of people are represented among employees.

Working in Canada
Doing Business in Canada

Safety in Canada

Canada is considered one of the safest countries in the world, and you will have little cause for concern regarding your day-to-day safety. The country has a low crime rate and a trusted police force with fast response times.

That said, certain regions do face higher safety concerns. Northern Territories like the Northwest Territories and Nunavut report higher rates of violent crime due to social issues such as poverty and substance abuse. Some urban areas, including specific neighbourhoods in Toronto and Vancouver, experience gang-related violence and property crime. Additionally, many Indigenous communities face unique safety challenges, with limited access to law enforcement resources and higher rates of violence linked to socioeconomic factors.

If you’re moving to Canada, there are a few steps you can take to enhance your personal safety. Research neighbourhoods thoroughly before settling down, especially in major urban centres. Connecting with local expat groups or community organisations can provide valuable insights into safe practices and neighbourhood dynamics.

Calendar initiatives in Canada

• 4 February – World Cancer Day
• March – TB Awareness Month
• 8 March – International Women’s Day
• May – Mental Health Awareness Week
• 19 May – Global Accessibility Awareness Day
• June – Pride Month
• 10 September – World Suicide Prevention Day
• October – Breast Cancer Awareness Month
• 10 October – World Mental Health Day
• 14 November – World Diabetes Day
• 1 December – World AIDS Day
• 30 September – National Day for Truth and Reconciliation

Due to its large landmass, Canada’s weather is highly variable depending on the location. The country stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and extends across six time zones. Only a small percentage of the population chooses to withstand the harsh conditions in the northern territories just south of the Arctic Circle.

Most expats living in Canada will find themselves residing within a few hundred miles of the United States border and in a more temperate climate (except for those living in Calgary and Edmonton). Although the weather extremes in Canada are fairly fluid across different regions, the four distinct seasons are similar throughout the country. Winters tend to be long and cold, while you can expect hot but short summers.

The country’s interior is generally flat and, for this reason, absorbs the cold currents and sweeping winds coming from the Canadian Arctic. The prairies in Canada also experience drastic weather changes from season to season. Some of the hottest and coldest temperatures in the country occur here.

Weather on Canada’s west coast of British Columbia and its east coast of Newfoundland is milder, a direct result of the maritime influence, but these areas also experience more rainfall.

Climate and Weather in Montreal
Climate and Weather in Ottawa
Climate and Weather in Toronto
Climate and Weather in Calgary
Climate and Weather in Vancouver

Finding accommodation in Canada can be daunting, especially when seeking a suitable and reasonably priced place to call home. With high demand and limited availability in Canada’s major cities, it’s not always easy to find the right place. If you’re unfamiliar with the Canadian property market, using a real estate agent could make your search far less stressful.

If you’re planning a move to Canada, renting a home is often the smartest first step. It gives you a chance to get the lay of the land and figure out which neighbourhood fits your lifestyle best before you decide to buy.

Types of accommodation in Canada

When considering the different types of accommodation in Canada, you’ll find a wide selection available. Your choices will vary from city to city but typically include apartments (often found in city centres), townhouses (also known as row houses), and standalone houses (commonly located in the suburbs).

Canada is a highly developed country, and the quality of housing reflects this. Homes are generally spacious compared to what you’d find in much of Europe, and most properties come equipped with heating systems to manage Canada’s weather extremes. In Western Canada, natural gas is the go-to for keeping the chill at bay, while Eastern Canada usually opts for oil or electric heating to tackle the colder climate.

Furnished vs unfurnished accommodation

Most rental properties in Canada are unfurnished, so it’s wise to budget for buying or leasing furniture. Furnishing your space can be quite an investment, and costs can add up quickly depending on the type and quality of pieces you choose. That said, having a comfortable, well-furnished place often makes all the difference when settling into a new country.

Shipping your furniture in? Check out Shipping and Removals in Canada.

Short lets

Short-term rentals are readily available across Canada, especially in major cities. They can be ideal if you need temporary accommodation. Platforms like Airbnb, Vrbo, and Sublet.com are popular choices. You can find everything from entire homes to private rooms.

It’s worth noting that some cities, like Toronto, have regulations for short-term lets, such as requiring hosts to register their property and restricting rentals to primary residences. You might also encounter Municipal Accommodation Taxes (MAT) of around 5 percent, depending on where you’re staying.

Useful links

• Airbnb Canada
• Vrbo
• Sublet.com

Finding accommodation in Canada

Finding the perfect rental accommodation in Canada is a breeze with the right tools at your fingertips. Researching your destination city in advance can save you a world of headaches. It helps to identify neighbourhoods that match your budget, lifestyle, and requirements. By checking online classifieds and real estate sites, you’ll get a good sense of what’s available.

Websites like liv.rent, Zillow, Rentals.ca, Realtor.ca, and PadMapper are some of the most popular choices for rental searches. These platforms feature verified listings and user-friendly tools to help narrow down properties based on your needs.

Once in Canada, try to visit properties in person, explore different neighbourhoods, and set realistic expectations. Social media can be your friend too – join local Facebook groups focused on rentals, follow Instagram accounts specialising in property, and even search hashtags like #TorontoRentals on X/Twitter for more options.

If you’re finding it tough to find a place, a real estate agent can be a big help. Many landlords prefer to work with agents to avoid the hassle of tenant searches, meaning agents often have exclusive access to some of the best rental properties. Agencies like Royal LePage and Remax have dedicated teams who know the ins and outs of the rental market and are well-equipped to help newcomers.

Useful links

• liv.rent
• Zillow
• Rentals.ca
• Realtor.ca
• PadMapper

Renting property in Canada

Renting property in Canada can be straightforward, as long as you’re prepared and understand the process.

Making an application to rent

When applying for a rental property, you’ll usually need to provide proof of income, references from previous landlords, and a form of identification. Some landlords may also ask for a credit check. Having these documents ready in advance will help make your application process smoother.

Leases

Leases are key to renting in Canada, and landlords treat them as gospel. Make sure you read the lease contract thoroughly before signing, as its terms are legally binding. Lease terms may be negotiable – whether it’s the rent amount, the lease length, maintenance responsibilities, or the inclusion of utilities. It’s worth bringing up these points to get the best deal for your situation.

Typical lease agreements specify the lease duration (generally 12 months, often extendable), as well as outlining additional financial responsibilities (water may be included, but gas and electricity are often separate) and the deposit amount.

Deposits

Deposits are typically required when renting in Canada and are usually equal to one month’s rent. Take note of the property’s condition when you move in to prevent any issues when moving out.

The deposit serves as a security measure for any damages beyond normal wear and tear. Landlords can only use the deposit for unpaid rent or damage that goes beyond everyday use; it can’t be used for general maintenance or improvements.

Terminating the lease

Terminating a lease early in Canada can be challenging. Most leases have a fixed term and breaking a lease early can come with penalties. Notice periods differ by province: in Ontario, 60 days’ notice is common, while British Columbia requires 30 days, and Quebec generally needs three months’ notice for leases longer than six months. If you need to move out early, consider subletting. Just be sure to get your landlord’s approval.

Penalties for early termination vary. You may need to keep paying rent until a new tenant is found or the lease ends. In some cases, if you provide sufficient notice and find a replacement tenant promptly, you may recover part of your deposit.

Utilities in Canada

Electricity

Electricity is the main utility cost in most Canadian homes, although rates differ depending on the province. Average monthly electricity costs can vary, but places like Alberta may see much higher bills, whereas Quebec enjoys lower rates due to their reliance on hydropower.

Accommodation and Utilities in Montreal

Gas

Natural gas is commonly used for heating, particularly in Western Canada. Monthly gas bills vary significantly depending on usage and the season, especially in colder regions like Alberta.

Accommodation and Utilities in Calgary

Water

Water charges generally range between moderate costs per month. In many apartment rentals, water is included in the rent, while in standalone homes, you may need to pay for it separately. Tap water quality is excellent across Canada, so there’s no need to worry about buying bottled water.

Bins and recycling

Recycling practices vary from one municipality to another, but most places have separate bins for recycling, compost, and general waste. Familiarise yourself with local guidelines and collection schedules to manage your waste properly.

Provinces like British Columbia are leaders in recycling, promoting initiatives like the Road to Zero Waste. Ontario is also active, working under the Waste-Free Ontario strategy to reduce landfill usage.

Accommodation and Utilities in Vancouver 
Accommodation and Utilities in Ottawa 
Accommodation and Utilities in Toronto

Internet

Internet services are provided by companies like Bell, Rogers, and Telus, and you can choose from a variety of packages based on speed and data requirements. Fibre optic is increasingly available in urban areas, delivering faster and more reliable service. Many providers also offer bundle deals, which can help you save on internet, TV, and phone services.

Accommodation and Utilities in Waterloo

Useful links

• Bell Canada, Rogers Communications and Telus

Canada has no nationalised education system, and instead grants the responsibility of implementation and assessment to the 13 individual provinces and territories. The standard of education in Canada is high overall, although the quality of education and the level of funding can vary significantly between the provinces and territories.

Once you’ve decided which province or territory you’d like to settle in, you’ll need to research whether a public or private school will better suit your child’s needs. Both have pros and cons, but cost, curriculum, and school ethos often weigh most heavily in the decision-making process.

With such an assortment of schooling options, you’ll want to get a head start by researching schools as far in advance as possible. A helpful resource in this regard is the Fraser Institute, which issues publicly available annual report cards assessing schools based on academic and overall performance. These reports are easily accessible online and can be a valuable tool for evaluating local schools.

Public schools in Canada

Public school curricula in Canada’s individual provinces are generally reflective of the territory’s population, language, history, and culture. In predominantly French-speaking Quebec, for instance, the primary language of education is French. New Brunswick follows a bilingual language policy, while other provinces use English as the main language of instruction. 

The compulsory education age range is also controlled by individual jurisdictions, but most provinces typically require attendance between the ages of 6 and 16.

If you have a residence permit, your children can attend Canadian public schools for free, while non-residents are liable to pay tuition fees set by their province or territory.

The International Baccalaureate (IB) and Advanced Placement (AP) programmes are becoming more available across public schools in Canada. About 200 schools offer the IB programme, and over 500 provide AP courses, particularly in urban areas like Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. These programmes provide challenging academic opportunities that can benefit university preparation.

Since students attend public schools based on catchment zones, you might want to choose your residential neighbourhood according to the school you want your children to attend.

School System in Calgary
School System in Montreal
School System in Ottawa
School System in Toronto
School System in Vancouver

Useful links

• CMEC National Education Overview
• Fraser Institute School Report Cards

Private and international schools in Canada

While most Canadian citizens use the free public education system, you may want to consider private or international schools if you can afford it and your child has particular educational needs or preferences. Private institutions are primarily funded through tuition and private donors.

Generally, they offer superior facilities, a more diverse range of extracurricular activities, smaller class sizes, and a higher standard of education. Some have a specific focus, such as bilingual education, arts programmes, or particular teaching philosophies.

Accreditation is key when evaluating a private or international school. Look for recognition from reputable bodies like the Canadian Association of Independent Schools (CAIS) or the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO). These accreditations help ensure that schools meet specific standards and provide quality education.

International Schools in Montreal
International Schools in Toronto

Useful links

• Canadian Association of Independent Schools
• International Baccalaureate Organisation

Special-needs education in Canada

As with most education-related matters in Canada, each province is largely responsible for how they handle students whose behavioural, communication, intellectual, or physical needs can’t be met by the standard education system. The overarching principle is to keep children with special needs in mainstream schools whenever possible, offering individualised assistance, accommodations, or special arrangements to support their learning experience.

The definition of special needs varies between provinces, shaping the support systems. British Columbia, for example, broadly defines special needs as intellectual, physical, and emotional challenges. Ontario refers to ‘students with exceptionalities’, while Alberta uses the term ‘diverse learning need’.

Most provinces use a range of support programmes within mainstream schools, such as Individualised Education Plans (IEPs), resource rooms for specialised help, and dedicated teaching assistants. Inclusive classrooms, where students of all abilities learn side-by-side, are also common. For those with more extensive challenges, there are also specialised schools.

Tutors in Canada

Tutoring is widely used throughout Canada, whether for exam preparation or extra help with a particular subject like maths or science. Approximately 30 percent of Canadian families utilise tutoring at some stage, with an uptick during key academic milestones such as exams or school transitions.

Tutors can be particularly helpful if your child requires assistance bridging the gap between their previous schooling abroad and the Canadian education system, especially if they’re adapting to a completely new curriculum. Language tutors are also popular, as they can help children improve their English skills or maintain fluency in their native language.

When selecting a tutor, consider their educational background, experience working with children at the appropriate level, and any specialisations they may have. References or reviews from other parents can also offer valuable insights.

Some of the most popular tutoring services include Kumon, which focuses on maths and reading skills, and Sylvan Learning, which offers personalised tutoring for a range of subjects. Online platforms such as TutorBright and Superprof offer flexible scheduling and access to a broad selection of tutors.

Useful links

• Kumon
• Sylvan Learning
• TutorBright
• Superprof Canada

If you are doing business in Canada, you’ll likely find that the customs and practices are influenced by a blend of American, British, and French business cultures. These diverse influences create a unique Canadian business culture with a number of nuances to consider when managing business interactions in Canada.

Canada has a large and thriving market economy, and although there is more government intervention here than in the US, there is far less than in many European countries. Locals tend to be open-minded and tolerant, and you can look forward to a welcoming working environment wherever you find yourself in Canada.

Fast facts

Business hours

Typical work hours are Monday to Friday, 9am to 5pm, but longer hours are common in some industries. Quebec tends to have slightly shorter working hours, while Alberta’s can be longer in sectors like oil and gas.

Business language

English is the main business language, but knowing some French is useful, especially in Quebec. In multicultural cities like Vancouver and Toronto, languages like Mandarin and Punjabi are also prominent.

Greetings

A handshake is the standard greeting, although in Quebec, a kiss on both cheeks is traditional. You should use formal titles initially, but most people switch to first names quickly.

Dress

Dress neatly. Formal attire (suit and tie) is standard in finance and law, while business casual is more common in tech. Adapt to the weather – warm, professional coats are essential in winter.

Gifts

Gifts aren’t expected, but small tokens are appreciated. Avoid extravagant gifts, and be mindful of cultural sensitivities, especially with Indigenous partners.

Gender equality

Women have equal rights and are increasingly in top roles. Canada emphasises gender equality, and discrimination is not tolerated.

Business culture in Canada

Canada is a massive country with an impressive multicultural makeup. Despite Canada’s size and diversity, you can count on a few consistencies in the country’s business culture that will help you manage professional settings with ease.

Punctuality

Punctuality is highly valued in Canadian business culture. Arriving on time is a clear sign of respect and professionalism. It’s acceptable – even encouraged – to arrive a few minutes early, as this demonstrates your commitment and respect for others’ schedules. Always aim to be on time or slightly early to create a positive impression.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy in Canada’s business culture varies significantly by industry. Traditional sectors such as finance, law, and manufacturing tend to follow more formal structures, where decision-making is often concentrated at the top. However, newer industries like technology and startups have adopted flatter, more collaborative models where input from all levels is encouraged.

Meetings

Meetings in Canada can vary in formality depending on the region and industry. In larger cities such as Toronto, meetings tend to be more formal, while smaller towns or regions like Quebec may lean towards a more relaxed atmosphere with some personal interactions.

Small talk is integral to Canadian meetings, focusing on neutral topics such as the weather or sports to help build rapport. This informal prelude sets a positive tone before plunging into business discussions. Canadians appreciate this balance of friendliness and professionalism, and engaging in small talk can help establish strong working relationships.

Meetings are generally well organised, and schedules are strictly followed. Always stick to the agenda, as Canadians value efficiency and respect for others’ time. Business cards are commonly exchanged, so carry enough with you. In Quebec, it’s a thoughtful gesture to have one side of your business card printed in French.

When presenting to Canadian business associates, back up your claims with concrete facts, figures, and documents. Canadians are rational and logical, preferring evidence-based arguments to flashy presentations or exaggerated claims. Being well-prepared shows respect for your audience’s time and attention and is essential in earning their trust.

Communication

Canadians tend to favour a direct communication style that is polite and respectful. They value clarity and honesty but without aggressive or confrontational language.

While you are expected to say what you mean, it’s also important to maintain a courteous and tactful tone. Confrontation is carefully avoided, and showing too much emotion may be frowned upon in business settings. A balance between being forthright and considerate is key to successful communication in Canada.

Dos and don’ts of business in Canada

• Don’t assume everything is the same as in the US – Canada has its own unique nuances.
• Do be prepared with facts and figures for presentation – logic and evidence are highly valued.
• Don’t use aggressive sales tactics – these are generally not well received. For instance, ignoring a clear refusal or applying high-pressure techniques can come across as disrespectful.
• Do learn some French if you are doing business in Quebec – it will go a long way towards building rapport. Even if you’re not fluent, making an effort with basic phrases can make a significant positive impact.
• Do avoid personal discussions at business meetings – focus on the professional unless you are invited to share more.
• Do adopt a collaborative approach – Canadians value agreement-building and often seek input from various organisational levels to ensure everyone is on board.
• Don’t be overly blunt – directness is appreciated, but always maintain politeness and use respectful language when expressing differing opinions or feedback.

Whether you’re planning to carve your way down Canada’s ski slopes on holiday or settle into one of its world-famous urban centres more permanently, it’s essential to research the different visas available to enter Canada. The visa application process may seem overwhelming, with over 60 categories to consider. Here are a few of the most widely used visa categories for Canada.

Visitor visas for Canada

If you’re a citizen of the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, or most European countries, you can enjoy visa-free entry into Canada for up to six months, provided you have a valid passport.

If you’re from a designated country listed on Canada’s Citizenship and Immigration site, you’ll need to apply for a visitor visa (sometimes called a temporary residence visa) to gain entry into Canada.

If you’re funding your own trip, you must provide proof of financial stability. This could mean showing bank statements, employment letters detailing your salary, or certified cheques to prove you can cover your expenses while in Canada.

Even if you’re from a visa-free country, there are a few things you still need to keep in mind. A valid passport with at least six months before it expires is a must, and if you’re travelling by air, you’ll need an Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA).

Useful links

• Government of Canada: Visitor Visa Information

Student visas for Canada

If studying in Canada is on your horizon, you’ll need to apply for a study permit. A study permit allows you to enrol at designated learning institutions (DLIs) across the country. To apply, you’ll first need an acceptance letter from a recognised DLI and proof of funds to cover your tuition fees, living expenses, and the return journey.

In some cases, you can even work part-time while studying, which is a great way to offset your living expenses. You can work up to 24 hours per week during academic sessions and full-time during scheduled breaks. Just make sure your study permit allows off-campus work before starting a job.

Upon graduation, you may qualify for a Post-Graduation Work Permit (PGWP), which allows you to gain valuable work experience in Canada. This experience could pave the way for a more permanent stay through pathways like the Canadian Experience Class under Express Entry, making your study journey just the start of your Canadian adventure.

Useful links

• EduCanada: Official Information for International Students
• Government of Canada: Working While Studying

Work visas for Canada

If you're considering working in Canada temporarily, you'll need to apply for a work permit. There are two main pathways for obtaining a work permit: the Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) and the International Mobility Program (IMP).

In most cases, you'll need a valid job offer before applying for a work permit. Exceptions do exist, like the working holiday visa under the International Experience Canada (IEC).

Work permits are usually temporary but can be extended. To extend your permit, apply at least 30 days before it expires, ensuring you meet the eligibility criteria and your job conditions remain unchanged. If you’re changing jobs or roles, you may need to submit a new application altogether.

For more information about the different types of work permits, eligibility requirements, and application processes, check out our detailed Work Permits in Canada guide.

Useful links

• IEC Working Holiday Visa

Permanent residence visas for Canada

If you're looking to make Canada your permanent home, you'll need to apply for permanent residency. There are multiple pathways, including Canada’s federal programme and various provincial programmes, in which case a particular province will need to nominate you. Each programme has its own set of requirements, but they all share the same ultimate goal: welcoming those who can contribute to Canada’s economy and society.

Deciding which residency category to apply for is the first step. If you’re reuniting with family, have just graduated from a Canadian institution, or have skills and experience in demand, there are pathways designed specifically for you.

Express Entry Programme

The Express Entry Programme is one of the most popular pathways to permanent residency in Canada. It is a points-based system that evaluates candidates based on factors such as age, education, work experience, and language proficiency. The higher your score, the better your chances of receiving an invitation to apply for permanent residency.

The programme includes several streams, such as the Federal Skilled Worker Programme, the Federal Skilled Trades Programme, and the Canadian Experience Class. Each of these streams has specific eligibility criteria aimed at attracting individuals who can make an immediate positive impact on Canada’s economy.

• The Federal Skilled Worker Programme (FSWP) requires candidates to score at least 67 points on a grid that considers age, education, work experience, and adaptability.
• The Federal Skilled Trades Programme (FSTP) is for those with experience in skilled trades, and applicants must either have a valid job offer or a certificate of qualification from a Canadian authority. 
• The Canadian Experience Class (CEC) is designed for those who have at least 12 months of skilled work experience in Canada.

Provincial Nominee Programme (PNP)

The Provincial Nominee Programme (PNP) allows Canadian provinces and territories to nominate individuals who wish to immigrate to Canada and are interested in settling in a particular province. Each province has its own unique criteria based on its specific labour market needs.

The PNP can be a quicker route to permanent residency, especially if you have skills that are in high demand in a particular province. Provinces like British Columbia, Ontario, and Alberta actively seek candidates in sectors such as healthcare, technology, and skilled trades. Some provinces also have streams providing express entry, which can speed up the process if you are eligible.

Family Sponsorship

If you have close family members who are Canadian citizens or permanent residents, you may be eligible to apply for permanent residency through the Family Sponsorship programme. This pathway allows Canadian citizens or permanent residents to sponsor their spouses, common-law partners, children, parents, and sometimes other relatives.

To sponsor a family member, the sponsor must meet certain financial requirements to ensure they can support their relative financially once they arrive in Canada. The income requirements depend on the number of dependants and are adjusted annually.

Useful links

• Government of Canada: Immigrate to Canada

Visa regulations change frequently, often with little notice, so it’s a good idea to contact your local embassy or consulate for the latest information.

Despite its large geographic size, getting around Canada is fairly easy thanks to an excellent transport system. Whether you’re taking the train, the bus, or even hopping on a flight, the well-established road networks, railway system, and numerous domestic airports combine to make travelling across Canada straightforward and painless.

Public transport in Canada

Trains

VIA Rail is the national passenger rail service in Canada. VIA Rail links major cities such as Toronto, Calgary, and Vancouver, as well as many smaller communities.

Train travel is a more comfortable option than buses, although it comes at a higher cost. To save money, buy tickets in advance, as they’re generally cheaper than on-the-spot purchases.

VIA Rail offers several service classes to suit different travel needs.

• Economy Class provides comfortable seating and access to a café car for snacks, and you can enjoy WiFi on select routes.
• Business Class offers enhanced seating with more legroom, complimentary meals and drinks, access to exclusive lounges, and priority boarding.
• For overnight journeys, Sleeper Class provides private cabins, meals, and access to shower facilities and lounge areas.

VIA Rail is constantly expanding its services, including additional round trips between Toronto and Ottawa and between London and Toronto.

Buses

Bus services in Canada are also top-notch. Clean, safe, and reliable, they offer an affordable way to travel between cities and even across the border into the United States. Various service providers offer intercity bus routes, and some are expanding to serve more remote communities as demand for local transport options grows.

Intercity buses come with a host of amenities, including onboard toilets, air conditioning, reclining seats, and movies. Many buses also have free WiFi and electrical outlets. You can purchase tickets online, over the phone, at bus terminals, or through an agency, making it easy to plan your journey in advance.

Useful links

• VIA Rail Canada
• Busbud: Compare Bus Routes Across Canada

Taxis in Canada

Taxis in Canada are plentiful, with multiple companies operating in most cities. You can hail one in the street, grab one at a taxi rank, or pre-book over the phone.

Metered fares are strictly regulated and can’t be negotiated. Drivers generally expect a tip between 10 percent and 20 percent to reflect the quality of their service. Taxi drivers in all major cities carry official identification, which you can request to see if necessary.

Besides traditional taxis, ride-hailing apps are gaining traction across Canada. Uber and Lyft have established a foothold in major cities. New entrants like URide and Zoom Zoom cater to smaller communities, offering a blend of traditional taxis with modern conveniences.

Most ride-hailing services now favour cashless payments, and you can use credit cards or mobile payment options like Apple Pay or Google Pay for a convenient and safe ride.

Useful links

• Uber Canada
• Lyft Canada
• URide
• Zoom Zoom

Driving in Canada

Driving remains the most common way to get around Canada. All vehicles in Canada must be insured and registered with the provincial or territorial government. Insurance costs vary widely between provinces. Factors such as accident rates, provincial regulations, and the type of coverage all play a part in determining the price, so it’s wise to do thorough research before committing to an insurer.

Driving regulations can also differ from one province to another. For example, British Columbia and Alberta have strict bans on handheld devices while driving. In Quebec, winter tyres are mandatory from December 15 to March 15, and the province also has lower blood alcohol limits than others. It’s essential to familiarise yourself with local driving laws to avoid any issues on the road.

Driving licences

If you’re planning on driving in Canada, you can initially use your foreign driving licence for a limited period, typically up to three months, depending on the province. After this period, you must convert your licence to a Canadian one. In some provinces, you might be able to make a direct swap if your original licence is from a country with a reciprocal agreement with Canada. These countries include the United States, Australia, Germany, France, and the UK, among others.

Bear in mind that certain documents are typically needed for the exchange process, such as proof of residency, your current valid foreign licence, and possibly a driving history or record. If your licence is not in English or French, you may also need an official translation or an International Driving Permit (IDP).

The process for converting your licence varies across provinces and territories. In Ontario and BC, for instance, if you come from a reciprocal country and have more than two years of driving experience, you only need to pass an eye test. For others, a knowledge test and a road test may be required. For those from non-reciprocal countries, the process usually involves a written knowledge test, an eye exam, and potentially a road test.

The time you can drive on a foreign licence also differs by province. In Ontario, you can drive for up to 60 days; in Alberta and British Columbia, the period extends to 90 days of establishing residency.

Once you have a Canadian licence, it’s valid across all provinces and territories. Each province may have its own particular requirements, so it’s important to stay informed to ensure you remain compliant with local regulations.

For more on regulations in Alberta, see Driving and Licences in Calgary. For more on British Columbia's driving rules, see Driving and Licences in Vancouver. Quebec's transport and driving details can be found in Driving and Licences in Montreal. See Driving and Licences in Toronto for Ontario's rules.

Useful links

• Government of Canada: Driving in Canada

Domestic air travel in Canada

Domestic air travel in Canada is often the most efficient and practical way to get from coast to coast. The airline industry is highly competitive, with well-established players like Air Canada facing stiff competition from low-cost carriers such as WestJet and Flair Airlines. These low-cost options are constantly expanding their networks, which means there are always good deals to be found if you know where to look.

If you’re looking for cheap flights, signing up for airline newsletters can give you access to exclusive offers, and fare comparison websites like Skyscanner or Google Flights can help you find the best prices across different airlines.

Booking your flight well in advance and flying during off-peak times, such as mid-week or non-holiday periods, can also help you save. Loyalty programmes are another great way to rack up points that you can use for future discounts or even free flights.

Canadian airports are always upgrading their services to make your experience smoother. Enhanced security measures have reduced wait times, and the adoption of contactless check-in and boarding has made flying safer and more convenient.

Useful links

• Air Canada
• WestJet
• Flair Airlines

Cycling in Canada

Cycling in Canada is actively encouraged by local authorities, who strive to make conditions as favourable as possible. Many towns and cities have dedicated cycle lanes, making getting around on two wheels both practical and enjoyable. Bike-sharing schemes are also becoming increasingly popular, with larger cities leading the charge.

Several cities are investing heavily in cycling infrastructure. Toronto, for instance, has approved new bike lanes and safety improvements as part of its Cycling Network Plan, enhancing connectivity and safety throughout the city. Many of Canada’s cities have similar plans in progress.

As a cyclist, you’re expected to follow the same road regulations as other vehicles, and wearing a helmet is compulsory in most provinces. Provinces such as British Columbia have mandatory helmet laws for all cyclists, while others, like Ontario, only require helmets for cyclists under 18.

There are plenty of dedicated bicycle shops across the country to help you get set up, whether you’re looking for a new bike or maintenance services.

Occupying a vast northern corner of the Earth, Canada is a simply massive country replete with natural beauty, from glistening lakes and lush forests to soaring mountains and icy tundras. It is the second-largest country in the world and has the world’s longest coastline, spanning three oceans.

Most newcomers find Canada provides a drastically improved quality of life, with excellent infrastructure, great service delivery, a safe environment, and friendly people – all set against a backdrop of rugged and spectacular scenery.

Living in Canada as an expat

Living in Canada as an expat offers varied experiences depending on where you settle. Toronto offers a fast-paced lifestyle with a lively arts scene, cultural festivals, and many job opportunities, while Vancouver is known for its stunning natural scenery and emphasis on outdoor activities. If you prefer a slower pace of life, quieter Canadian towns provide stronger community ties and more affordable living, although job opportunities and amenities may be more limited.

To make the most of living in Canada, knowing the language is essential. Proficiency in English or French opens doors for employment and helps you engage with your local community. Settlement services are also incredibly useful – many organisations offer resources that can help you find a job, understand Canadian culture, and make valuable connections. Canada is a place that values community, and building a strong network can lead to job opportunities and lasting friendships.

Moving to and Living in Toronto
Moving to and Living in Vancouver
Moving to and Living in Calgary

Working in Canada

Working in Canada offers exciting opportunities, especially with its variety of visa options. Canada’s provinces also vary widely in job opportunities. Ontario and British Columbia have thriving sectors in technology, healthcare, and finance, while Alberta and Saskatchewan benefit from economies driven by natural resources like oil and agriculture.

When negotiating your salary, pay careful attention. While the cost of living in Canada is reasonable compared to many of the Asian superpowers and European metros, tax rates are high. But these deductions also give you access to some fantastic public services, including universal health insurance that grants near-comprehensive healthcare coverage and free education at reputable public schools.

Working in Canada
Doing Business in Canada

Canadian culture

Canadian culture is rich and diverse, influenced by communities from all around the world. You’ll find a wide variety of cuisines, from Asian fusion to classic French dishes, and events like Diwali, Chinese New Year, and Pride Month are celebrated nationwide. Canadians value inclusivity and respect, making it easy to feel welcomed and find your place here. Canadians are polite and welcoming to a fault, using phrases like ‘please’, ‘thank you’, and ‘sorry’ liberally. 

Outdoor activities are a big part of Canadian life, with many locals enjoying hiking, skiing, and camping. Participating in these pastimes is a great way to experience the beauty of Canada’s landscapes and connect with the community.

Local Culture in Canada
Diversity and Inclusion in Canada

Accommodation in Canada

Finding the perfect place to live is key to feeling settled in Canada. Options range from high-rise apartments in major urban centres to houses in quieter suburban areas. Rent is relatively high in major cities like Toronto and Vancouver. Cities like Montreal tend to be more budget-friendly in comparison, and smaller cities and towns provide even more affordable options, ideal if you prefer a slower pace and more room.

Leasing is common, and landlords typically require a security deposit upfront. Ensure you understand all the terms, such as utilities, maintenance, and specific property rules. In smaller towns, landlords may be more open to negotiation because of lower competition.

Accommodation and Utilities in Canada

Cost of living in Canada

The cost of living in Canada varies widely by province, and knowing what to expect can help you plan effectively. British Columbia is generally the most expensive province, with Vancouver topping the charts for housing and living expenses. Ontario, particularly Toronto, follows close behind with high costs driven by housing and lifestyle. In contrast, Quebec offers more affordable living, especially in cities like Montreal, where rents and utilities are noticeably lower than in western provinces. Alberta falls somewhere in the middle, with moderate costs and relatively cheaper groceries and utilities.

Utilities, transport, and grocery costs in Canada can be comparable to other Western countries. Utility bills are similar to those in many European cities. Public transport costs are reasonable, with affordable monthly passes in major urban areas. Groceries might be pricier than in the US, but buying in bulk or visiting discount shops can make a significant difference.

Cost of Living in Canada
Banking, Money and Taxes in Canada

Getting around Canada

Given its enormous size, getting around Canada can be quite an adventure. In major cities like Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal, public transport is well-developed and efficient, with options including buses, trains, and subways.

If you’re in a more rural area, a car will likely be essential, as public transport is limited. Petrol can be expensive, especially in remote regions, so factor this into your living costs. Canada’s road network is extensive, and driving is generally safe, although you’ll need to prepare for harsh winter conditions in many areas.

Winter can be challenging for transport, with snow and ice often causing delays. Major cities are well-equipped to handle these conditions, with snow clearance teams and infrastructure designed to cope with extreme weather. Nevertheless, it pays to dress warmly, allow extra time for your journey, and stay informed about any service disruptions, particularly during heavy snowfalls.

Transport and Driving in Canada

Living in Canada with children

Canada is a wonderful place to raise a family. The country is known for its family-friendly policies and focus on work-life balance. New residents with children may also benefit from child-focused government programmes. The Canada Child Benefit (CCB) provides monthly payments to help with the cost of raising children, which can be a huge help as you settle in. Some provinces, such as Quebec, offer subsidised childcare, making it more affordable for working parents.

When it comes to family outings, there are countless options to keep everyone entertained, from nature trails and beach days in the summer to skiing and ice skating in winter. Many cities host child-friendly events throughout the year, such as festivals, park activities, and cultural fairs, making it easy to plan fun weekends with the kids.

Finding a school in Canada

Public education is generally excellent and is free for permanent residents and work visa holders. You can choose from public, private, or international schools, depending on your preferences and your child’s needs. Public schools are largely well-funded, and there are many reputable institutions to select from, especially in the larger cities.

Education and Schools in Canada

Healthcare in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is largely publicly funded, and the universal healthcare system means you won’t have to worry about most medical expenses. In some cases, there may be a waiting period of up to three months after registration as a resident before your coverage begins. It is wise to arrange private health insurance to cover any unexpected costs during this time.

Healthcare services can differ from province to province. Some regions might cover services such as dental care or physiotherapy more comprehensively than others. In provinces like Alberta, you may find more extensive coverage than others. Wait times for specialists can also vary depending on the region, with higher demand in populous provinces sometimes leading to longer waits.

Healthcare in Canada

Climate in Canada

The climate in Canada is as varied as its regions. Winters can be fierce, especially in interior regions like Calgary or Edmonton. Snow typically covers the ground for nearly six months a year. Coastal and southern regions have milder winters; however, temperatures can still drop significantly. Canadian buildings are well-equipped for freezing temperatures, with many cities featuring heated underground pathways for comfortable travel.

Summers can be pleasantly warm, especially in southern regions. Summer is perfect for outdoor adventures, whether it’s hiking in national parks, camping under the stars, or enjoying Canada’s lakes. Regardless of the season, dress in layers and prepare for changing weather conditions.

Climate and Weather Charts in Canada

All in all, Canada is a diverse, safe, and welcoming country with world-class healthcare, excellent education, and breathtaking natural beauty. Whether you’re seeking career opportunities, a safe place for your family, or a change of scenery, Canada offers it all. With some planning and research, you can settle in comfortably and fully enjoy life in Canada.

Fast facts

Population: 39.7 million

Capital city: Ottawa

Neighbouring countries: Canada shares a border with the United States of America to the south, as well as the US state of Alaska to the northwest.

Geography: The land is a vast wilderness populated by large modern cities, often against the rustic backdrop of beautiful natural surroundings. It boasts vast mountain ranges and prairies, massive lakes, lush forests and rugged coastlines. 

Political system: Federal parliamentary constitutional democracy

Major religions: Christianity

Main languages: English and French

Money: The Canadian Dollar (CAD), divided into 100 cents.

Tipping: 5 to 20 percent depending on the type of service.

Time: There are six time zones in Canada, ranging from GMT-8 in the west to GMT-3.5 in the east, or GMT-7 and GMT-2.5 from November to March.

Electricity: 110V, 60Hz. Standard plugs are flat two-pins, or plugs with a third round grounding pin.

Internet domain: .ca

International dialling code: +1

Emergency contacts: 911

Transport and driving: Cars drive on the right-hand side of the road. The rail system connects most major cities and smaller communities while buses are modern, safe and clean. Cycling is encouraged, while metered taxis are regulated.

Canada is a massive country of scenic beauty and home to a mosaic of different cultures and ethnic groups. If you’re moving to Canada, you likely have many questions about life in this exciting destination. Here are answers to some of the most frequently asked questions about moving to Canada.

Is it worth learning French?

When moving to Quebec, learning French is definitely worth it, as this is the province’s primary language. In Quebec, many people do speak English, but they often prefer to use French. Even if you’re not in Quebec, learning French can be hugely beneficial. The Quebec government also offers free French courses for newcomers, making learning easier.

Outside of Quebec, the primary language is almost always English.

Local Culture in Canada

Do I need a car in Canada?

Whether you require a car in Canada depends on where you live and your personal circumstances. Canada is vast, and getting around without your own transport can be tricky, especially when travelling between cities or in more rural areas. Public transport is generally reliable in larger cities like Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. Toronto has subways, trams, and buses, Vancouver has the SkyTrain and bus system, and Montreal boasts an efficient metro and bus network.

That said, commuting without a car can be challenging if you're living in the suburbs. It’s often much cheaper to buy a car in Canada than to bring one from overseas, especially given the high shipping costs.

Transport and Driving in Canada

How bad is the weather in winter?

The weather in Canada really depends on the area. Winters are famously cold, but the experience can vary widely. Coastal areas like Vancouver have relatively mild winters, with only around 50 days a year below freezing. On the other hand, the Arctic north is frigid and bleak for most of the year. In the populated southeast, you can expect winter temperatures around 23°F (-5°C).

To get through a Canadian winter comfortably, invest in good-quality winter gear – insulated jackets, sturdy boots, and warm gloves are essential. And if you plan on driving, ensure your car is equipped for winter conditions.

Climate and Weather in Canada

Which city do the most expats live in?

Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal have the largest expat populations. Toronto is particularly popular due to its diverse economy and lively cultural scene, while Vancouver attracts expats with its stunning scenery and outdoor lifestyle. Montreal, with its European charm, is a favourite among French-speaking expats.

Increasingly, expats are also moving to smaller cities for a more relaxed pace of life, lower living costs, or specific job opportunities. Many Canadian cities actively recruit immigrants, making it easier for newcomers to find communities and opportunities beyond the big hubs.

Is it easy to buy a house, and what are the factors involved in buying a house?

If you’re moving to Canada, location is the biggest factor when buying a house. Commutes to work can be long, especially if you live far from major business centres.  Quality of the neighbourhood, proximity to public transport, and property taxes are all key things to consider when house hunting in Canada.

Finding a Home to Rent or Buy in Canada

The housing market in popular cities like Toronto and Vancouver can be competitive, with high property prices and demand. Conversely, cities like Ottawa have seen more balanced market conditions, making them attractive to newcomers. Provinces such as British Columbia and Ontario are well-known for their high property values, and more affordable options can be found in places like Saskatchewan or New Brunswick.

What is the healthcare system like in Canada for newcomers?

Canada has a publicly funded healthcare system, which means most healthcare services are free at the point of care. Healthcare is managed by each province, and newcomers usually have a waiting period before they can access provincial health insurance. During this waiting period, it’s advisable to have private health insurance to cover any medical needs.

Healthcare and Health Insurance in Canada

What employment opportunities are available for newcomers in Canada?

Employment opportunities in Canada are diverse, especially in industries like technology, healthcare, finance, and engineering. Major cities like Toronto and Vancouver offer plenty of opportunities, but smaller cities are also growing in demand for skilled workers. Government programmes such as bridging programmes, career fairs, and employment services are designed to help newcomers integrate into the workforce.

Working in Canada
Doing Business in Canada

With a sophisticated and safe banking system, it’s easy for newcomers to manage money, banking, and taxes in Canada. Connecting to your overseas bank accounts is straightforward, and paying for goods with local or international credit and debit cards is the norm. In fact, the Canadian financial sector is increasingly digital, making it easier than ever to handle day-to-day transactions.

Money in Canada

The official currency in Canada is the Canadian Dollar, which is divided into 100 cents and abbreviated as CAD or C$. The Bank of Canada issues polymer notes, which are designed for durability and security.

• Notes: 5 CAD, 10 CAD, 20 CAD, 50 CAD, 100 CAD
• Coins: 5 cents (nickel), 10 cents (dime), 25 cents (quarter), 1 CAD (loonie), and 2 CAD (toonie)

Canada is both a cash and card society, although you’ll find that digital payments now dominate. Most merchants accept both cash and cards, and contactless payments have become very popular. Digital wallets and online transfers are now widely used and often preferred for their convenience and speed. Despite the growth in digital payments, cash usage has surprisingly seen a slight uptick in recent times, even though its general share is declining.

Banking in Canada

Banking in Canada is supported by five major banks: Royal Bank of Canada, TD Canada Trust, Bank of Montreal, Bank of Nova Scotia, and Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce. These banks offer easy access to accounts, a wide network of ATMs, Internet banking services, and branches in most major Canadian towns and cities.

If you’re considering international banking, options like HSBC, Citibank, and Bank of America are also present in Canada, offering additional flexibility.

In recent years, digital-only banks like Simplii Financial and EQ Bank have gained popularity, especially among tech-savvy consumers. These banks typically provide lower fees, higher interest rates on savings, and easier access through mobile apps, making them a flexible option worth considering.

Opening a bank account

It’s essential to open a Canadian bank account as soon as possible to settle in and handle transactions more smoothly. Most banks require a Social Insurance Number (SIN) and a government-issued photo ID to open an account. If you don’t yet have your SIN, some banks may allow you to open an account with other documents.

Many banks now also offer specialised accounts for newcomers, which often include fee waivers for the first year or even cash bonuses, giving you a head start. Some digital-only banks even allow you to set up accounts before you arrive in Canada, making the transition even more seamless.

Taxes in Canada

Paying Canadian income tax depends on several factors, one of which is residency. You are considered a Canadian tax resident if you stay in the country for more than 183 days a year. As a tax resident, you will be taxed on money earned anywhere in the world. If you are not a tax resident, you’ll only be taxed on income earned within Canada.

Canada operates with two tax systems: provincial and federal taxation. Tax rates are progressive, meaning the more you earn, the more you pay. High earners will find themselves in higher tax brackets, while lower earners will pay less.

Each province also sets its own rates, which can significantly impact how much tax you owe. For instance, provinces like Alberta tend to have more favourable tax policies than places like Quebec. 

Newcomers often face challenges when filing taxes, such as understanding residency status or missing out on benefits like the GST/HST credit or the Canada Child Benefit. Consulting a local tax specialist can be highly beneficial, ensuring you comply with the rules and take full advantage of any available benefits or deductions. Even if you have no income, filing your taxes annually keeps you eligible for various tax benefits that can significantly ease your financial burden during your early years in Canada.

It’s little wonder that with a stable economy and healthy job market, Canada is attracting an increasing number of international opportunity-seekers. The job market in Canada offers ample opportunities across various industries, especially for those with specialised skills and relevant experience.

A land built on the hard work of immigrants, Canada has a well-documented history of welcoming individuals looking for work into the country. If you have commendable industry experience and a degree of specialisation, you’ll find no shortage of job opportunities here.

Experts anticipate that the labour force associated with the local baby-boomer generation will be depleted in the coming years, leaving Canada even more inclined to welcome highly skilled workers like you to help sustain its expanding and versatile economy.

Job market in Canada

The job market in Canada is more than just its abundant natural resources, which include strong forestry, fishing, oil, and gas sectors. While these industries have played an essential role historically, economic diversification and environmental concerns have shifted the focus towards more sustainable industries and technological innovation as well.

In Canada’s urban centres, you may find opportunities in the financial services, real estate, and communications industries, all of which have been experiencing significant growth. The financial services sector is seeing a strong push towards digital banking and fintech innovations. The real estate market is competitive, influenced by rising property prices and a growing interest in suburban living due to remote work trends. Meanwhile, the communications sector continues to thrive, with investments in IT infrastructure to support the shift to remote work.

If you are moving to Canada from the UK or the US, you might encounter slightly lower wages than what you’re used to, and higher taxes are also a factor. However, Canada offers exceptional healthcare and social benefits, and its cities consistently rank among the best places to live globally.

Banking, Money and Taxes in Canada

Finding a job in Canada

Canada takes pride in its strong infrastructure and well-maintained support systems, so it comes as no surprise that multiple resources are available to assist you in your job search. 

Before starting your search, know that the job market in Canada may be vastly different from what you are used to, and different provinces may have unique demands. For instance, in Quebec, proficiency in French is often essential, while other provinces, such as Ontario and British Columbia, may primarily require English.

Ensuring that your foreign qualifications are recognised is essential, and it may be worthwhile to have them assessed by a designated agency like World Education Services (WES) or other credential assessment bodies before applying.

There are a variety of effective online job portals where you can upload your curriculum vitae and apply for jobs, including Indeed, LinkedIn, and Job Bank Canada. Another valuable resource is the 9cv9 Canada Job Board, which is gaining traction for its user-friendly interface and innovative features, making it a great tool for jobseekers.

Networking plays a significant role in finding a job in Canada. Attending events, joining organisations for newcomers, and engaging with local trade associations can give you an edge, helping you tap into the hidden job market and increasing your chances of finding the right opportunity.

Useful links

• Indeed Canada
• LinkedIn
• Job Bank Canada
• Monster Canada

Work culture in Canada

Canada’s work culture is generally quite casual yet founded on strong values. Punctuality, respect, and teamwork are essential. When meeting and greeting, it is important to make direct eye contact and give a firm handshake.

Most Canadian companies have a top-down structure, meaning decisions are largely made by those in executive positions rather than by the company as a whole. This structure may take some getting used to, but it also provides clear lines of responsibility and authority.

Dress codes can vary depending on the industry – sectors such as finance and law lean towards more formal attire, while creative and tech industries are more relaxed, reflecting a shift towards a more flexible work environment.

Business Culture in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is decentralised, full and universal for all citizens and permanent residents. The universal public health insurance gives you low-cost access to doctors and other health practitioners. This insurance system, known as Medicare, allows you to seek treatment at both private and public healthcare facilities, although the overwhelming majority of hospitals, clinics, and practices in Canada are private. The system does not dictate which doctor or service provider you must use.

If you have temporary residency in Canada, you may face different rules depending on the province or territory where you live. In some provinces, such as British Columbia, you may qualify for the Medical Services Plan (MSP) if you meet certain residency requirements, but in others, like Quebec, you might need to wait or have an agreement based on your home country.

Even if you don’t qualify for Medicare and need to take out a more expensive private health insurance plan, you can rest assured that you will receive high-quality treatment administered by well-trained professionals.

Public healthcare in Canada

The healthcare system in Canada is funded publicly by taxes, but doctors and hospitals run their own businesses privately and bill the government for services rendered.

Each province or territory defines the procedures and services covered by its particular health insurance plan. All core health services, such as acute hospital care and most physician services, are covered. This gives you a fair opportunity to receive high-quality treatment.

Waiting times can be a real sticking point. In some provinces like Nova Scotia, waiting times for specialist treatment can stretch up to 57 weeks, while others, such as Quebec, are somewhat shorter but still a challenge. Emergencies are addressed immediately, but you might have to wait weeks for a consultation or even up to six months for important surgeries.

There is a shortage of general practitioners, and many won’t take new patients. To make matters more frustrating, specialists require a referral from a general practitioner before they can provide treatment. This means finding a family doctor when you arrive in Canada is essential, even if it takes time to register.

Find out more about healthcare and health insurance in Canada's major cities:

• Healthcare in Calgary
• Healthcare in Montreal
• Healthcare in Ottawa
• Healthcare in Toronto
• Healthcare in Vancouver
• Healthcare in Waterloo

Useful links

• Government of Canada: Canada Health Care System
• How Health Care is Funded in Canada

Getting a health insurance card in Canada

If you are moving to Canada, you should prioritise applying for a medical card upon arrival. Application forms are available online, and you will need identification, such as a birth certificate or passport, along with proof of permanent residence, to complete the process.

After submitting the required documentation, you may have to wait up to three months to access Medicare, depending on the province. For example, Ontario typically has a three-month waiting period before new residents can access public healthcare services. In Quebec, certain newcomers may be exempted from the waiting period based on social security agreements with their home countries.

Insurance co-pays vary across provinces and territories in line with each location’s policies and wealth distribution, but they are generally affordable. Medical care services offered in one province or territory may differ from those in another, so it is wise to acquire private health insurance when travelling across Canada. It’s also advisable for expats to take out private health insurance while waiting for their health insurance card.

Private health insurance in Canada

Private health insurance in Canada is used by locals and newcomer residents as a supplement to Medicare, and it’s the primary option for temporary residents who don’t qualify for public coverage. There are various packages available, so you will need to research and evaluate your needs to see which plan and service provider is best for you.

When selecting a private health insurance package, make sure you consider the coverage options, premiums, network of healthcare providers, and any exclusions. For instance, some plans may not cover pre-existing conditions or might come with high deductibles.

Premiums can be expensive, especially for full cover, so if you are moving to Canada with a job offer in place, try negotiating private insurance as part of your employment package. Many large multinational companies often include health insurance in their job relocation packages, especially when bringing in international talent. This can significantly reduce your personal costs and provide you with greater peace of mind.

Pharmacies and medication in Canada

You can easily find pharmacies in all major Canadian cities. They are typically located within drug stores, grocery shops, and large department shops, while some are attached to hospitals and medical clinics. Pharmacy costs can vary widely across major cities due to local pricing and overhead costs. Most prescription medicines are available at pharmacies in Canada, although certain medications that are over-the-counter elsewhere might require a prescription here.

Bear in mind that some medications can be pricey, so it’s best to keep the receipt to claim the cost from either Medicare or a private health insurer if eligible. Reimbursement for medications typically involves paying out-of-pocket at the pharmacy, submitting a claim to your insurance provider, and then waiting for repayment based on your plan’s terms.

Useful links

• Health Canada: Health Products and Drugs
• Shoppers Drug Mart Pharmacy Locator
• London Drugs

Vaccinations for Canada

Vaccinations are an important part of maintaining good health in Canada. If you’re new to the country, it’s a good idea to check which vaccinations are recommended for the local environment. Commonly recommended vaccines include diphtheria, polio, tetanus (DPT), and measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR).

Certain provinces, like Ontario and New Brunswick, require proof of immunisation for children enrolling in school, although exemptions may be possible for medical or religious reasons. You can access vaccinations through local public health units, family doctors, or walk-in clinics. It’s best to organise your vaccinations soon after arrival to ensure you’re protected.

Useful links

• Government of Canada: Vaccinations for Children

Emergency medical services in Canada

Emergency medical services in Canada are regulated by individual provinces and, by law, must be provided to anyone in need, regardless of their residency status or ability to pay. In a medical emergency, you can request an ambulance by dialling 911.

Ambulance services can vary in cost depending on the province. In some regions, the cost is partially covered by public health insurance, but there may still be an out-of-pocket expense. Some provinces charge a flat fee for ambulance rides, regardless of the distance or service level provided.

If you’re moving to Canada, there’s a lot to consider when shipping your possessions. Generally, the rule of thumb is that if you can replace it in Canada, it’s best to leave it behind.

Even though this massive country's east and west coasts are home to large, efficient ports, shipping is expensive. In most cases, you can purchase new goods once you arrive in Canada for less than you’d pay to ship them over. Plus, replacing items locally can help you avoid the headaches of customs and the risks of potential damage during transit.

There are also plenty of furnished accommodation options available in most Canadian cities. If you’re settling in Calgary or other inland destinations, shipping will be especially costly, as the process will require a combination of different delivery methods, often involving both road and rail transport.

Finding and Renting Accommodation in Canada

Shipping household goods to Canada

If you bring your household goods to Canada, you can streamline the process by strategically dividing your belongings. The most essential items should be brought over by air freight, which is faster but more expensive, while the rest can be shipped by sea. Air freight typically takes 2 to 8 days, while sea shipping can take anywhere from 20 to 40 days.

It’s also important to spend some time researching shipping companies and getting quotes from reputable providers before committing to an agreement. Some of the most reliable companies for international moves to Canada include DHL, FedEx, UPS, Maersk, and Kuehne + Nagel.

Get shipping insurance, and ideally, purchase it from an independent insurance provider rather than the shipping company. This helps ensure that claims are handled objectively, reducing the risk of conflicts of interest.

Keep in mind that all shipments to Canada are subject to customs duties and taxes, which can vary depending on the type and value of your goods. Make sure you understand these tariffs in advance to avoid any surprises. Brokerage fees for customs clearance can also add to your costs, depending on the declared value and the shipping carrier you use.

Furniture

When it comes to furniture, the cost of furnishing a new home in Canada can often be more economical than shipping furniture from abroad, especially for bulky items like large sofas or antique pieces. Moreover, if you’re shipping wooden items, be aware that Canada may require fumigation to prevent pests.

Cost of shipping to Canada

The cost of shipping goods to Canada is influenced by several factors: the distance between your current location and your destination, the weight and dimensions of your shipment, and your chosen shipping method.

If you’re planning to use sea freight, you can opt for Less than Container Load (LCL) if you don’t have enough goods to fill an entire container, or Full Container Load (FCL) if you do.

Another often-overlooked expense is storage fees. Delays in customs clearance can lead to additional storage charges if your goods are held at ports or warehouses longer than expected. To minimise this, ensure that all your documentation is in order before your goods set sail.

Shipping pets to Canada

Shipping your pets to Canada requires proof of rabies vaccination and, in some cases, a veterinary certificate. Microchips are only necessary for animals brought into the country for commercial purposes, but we still recommend microchipping your pets as a precaution.

Certain exotic pets may face restrictions or require special permits, so it’s a good idea to check Canadian regulations well before your move.

Shipping pets can also involve hidden costs, such as quarantine fees, airline pet travel charges, and import permits for certain animals. Make sure to factor in these potential expenses when planning your move, and contact a specialist pet relocation service if you’re unsure about the requirements for your furry friends.

Local culture in Canada derives from an amalgamation of various immigrant cultures. Indeed, you may be surprised to find remnants of your own culture reflected in Canada’s various customs. While culture shock in Canada is not something you’re likely to deal with, there are still a few things worth knowing about local culture in Canada.

Language barrier in Canada

Language barriers are unlikely to be an issue for expats, as most of the country is English-speaking, apart from Quebec, whose population is mostly Francophone. 

Quebec is culturally and linguistically distinct from the rest of the country. If you’re moving to its largest city, Montreal, you’ll find that it has a significant English-speaking population and offers many English-language institutions, including schools and media outlets. However, learning French will benefit you significantly, especially in other parts of Quebec.

Quebec’s language policies are distinct from those of the rest of Canada. French is the official language, with strict regulations promoting its use in education, business, and government. Understanding a bit of French will undoubtedly ease your transition if you plan on settling in the region.

Want to explore Montreal for yourself? Learn more about Life in Montreal.

Cultural differences in Canada

The large cities, especially Toronto and Victoria, reflect a strong British heritage, while Montreal is proudly French, and Vancouver hosts many Asian cultures. Where America prides itself on its integration of cultures, Canada encourages co-existence in an ‘ice cream swirl’ or, as it is commonly referred to, a cultural mosaic.

Nearly a quarter of Canada’s population originates from a different country, and this multiculturalism is evident in every aspect of daily life, from cuisine to festivals. You can experience this through diverse culinary traditions, ethnic restaurants, and food festivals that celebrate the variety of cultures represented here.

While various cultures are encouraged to maintain their traditions and flourish, the mainstream culture is very similar to that of the US – which will be familiar to most expats thanks to America’s far-reaching film and television industry.

Check out more about: 
Life in Toronto
Life in Vancouver

Geographical distances in Canada

What may come as a surprise is more geographical than cultural. The incredible size of Canada makes driving even just to the next town quite a journey. Driving across Canada, from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, is almost equivalent to the distance between the UK and Pakistan.

Popular methods of getting around include air travel, which is the most convenient for long distances. Major airlines connect cities across provinces, making air travel the fastest option. VIA Rail also offers train services that link major urban centres, providing scenic views along the way. For those who love road trips, Canada’s extensive highway system makes it possible, although you’ll need to plan well for fuel and accommodation stops, given the vast distances between some cities.

Public Transport and Driving in Canada

Weather in Canada

One of the biggest challenges you might encounter is the weather in Canada. Many newcomers, especially those from warmer climates, will have to get used to long and often harsh winters. The northern territories are at the receiving end of the most extreme levels, but provinces and cities closer to the United States border typically enjoy more temperate weather. Summer is usually lovely and warm, with both the west and east coasts basking in milder conditions.

Canada has developed an impressive infrastructure to deal with harsh winters. Snow ploughs, salt trucks, and well-maintained road systems ensure that movement isn’t restricted for too long, even during heavy snowfall. Buildings are equipped with top-notch heating systems and insulation, keeping you warm no matter how low the temperatures drop.

Learn more about Climate and Weather Charts in Canada.

Women in Canada

Canada is known for promoting gender equality, and women enjoy equal rights in every aspect of society. The country has made strides in healthcare, education, and professional opportunities for women, resulting in a progressive environment that continues to evolve. Recent initiatives like the National Action Plan to End Gender-Based Violence and the Federal 2SLGBTQI+ Action Plan aim to address systemic barriers and promote safety and inclusion for all women, including LGBTQ+ individuals.

Notable female leaders such as Mary Simon, Canada’s first Indigenous Governor General, and Dr Theresa Tam, the Chief Public Health Officer, continue to make substantial contributions in their fields, setting an inspiring example for others.

Gender Equality and Women in Leadership in Canada

LGBTQ+ in Canada

Canada is celebrated for its inclusivity and acceptance of LGBTQ+ rights. It was one of the first countries to legalise same-sex marriage, and most cities have thriving LGBTQ+ communities. The culture here is generally open and welcoming, making Canada an attractive destination for LGBTQ+ individuals looking for a place to live freely.

Cities like Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal are particularly LGBTQ+ friendly, hosting lively Pride events and offering a wealth of community resources. While urban areas are mostly supportive, rural communities may still be more conservative, with fewer dedicated resources, which could present challenges for LGBTQ+ individuals seeking acceptance and community.

LGBTQ+, Diversity and Inclusion in Canada

If you intend to work in Canada, you will, in most cases, need a work permit. There are two main types of work permits: open work permits and employer-specific work permits. Each type has its own set of requirements and privileges.

In Canada, a work permit is an official document that allows you to work in Canada, whereas you'll likely need a Temporary Resident Visa or TRV to enter the country. Citizens of countries that require a visa to enter Canada will need a work visa alongside their work permit. The work permit itself does not grant entry – it only gives you the authorisation to work once you are inside Canada.

Read more: Getting a Visa in Canada

Types of work permits in Canada

Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP)

The Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) is ideal if you have a valid job offer in Canada but need to navigate stricter requirements. This programme requires a Labour Market Impact Assessment (LMIA), which demonstrates that hiring a foreign worker will not negatively impact the Canadian job market, and that no Canadian citizen or permanent resident is available to fill the role.

While stringent, the TFWP is an important route for industries facing significant labour shortages or highly variable hiring patterns, including agriculture, healthcare, construction, and hospitality.

International Mobility Program (IMP)

The International Mobility Program (IMP) is part of Canada’s broader strategy to attract and retain top global talent, especially in high-growth industries like technology and innovation. It’s particularly advantageous for skilled workers whose employers are not required to demonstrate local labour shortages, since it allows for LMIA-exempt permits.

This programme includes categories like intra-company transferees, those entering under international agreements (such as CUSMA, formerly NAFTA), and some other exemptions.

The Innovation Stream is a notable addition under the IMP, providing permits for skilled workers with job offers from select high-growth companies. This is part of Canada’s Tech Talent Strategy, aimed at addressing labour shortages in key tech occupations.

Open Work Permits

Open Work Permits give you greater flexibility because they are not tied to any particular employer. This means you can switch employers freely without having to reapply for a new permit, making it ideal for individuals who want to explore different opportunities in Canada.

Open Work Permits are available to those in specific circumstances, such as spouses and dependant children of skilled workers, recent graduates of Canadian institutions, and individuals applying for permanent residency. These permits generally last up to two years but can be shorter, depending on the conditions, like changes in the primary worker’s employment status.

As of 2025, the Canadian government has introduced new eligibility requirements for spouses of foreign workers and students seeking open work permits:

• For spouses of international students, eligibility is now limited to students enrolled in certain programmes, including masters and doctoral degrees of 16 months or longer, designated areas of study (e.g., medicine, dentistry, engineering), or specific pilot programmes like the Francophone Mobility Communities Student Pilot.
• For spouses of foreign workers, eligibility is restricted to workers in TEER 0 or 1 occupations, or specific TEER 2 or 3 roles in labour-shortage sectors such as healthcare, construction, and natural resources. The primary worker must have at least 16 months remaining on their work permit.

Under the new rules, dependant children of foreign workers are not eligible for open work permits. There are also restrictions on the type of work you can do. For example, you cannot work in certain sectors, such as adult entertainment.

Post-Graduation Work Permits (PGWP)

For international students, the Post-Graduation Work Permit (PGWP) is a key option, allowing you to gain critical work experience after you've obtained your degree. Students must complete at least 50 percent of their studies in class in Canada to be eligible for a PGWP.

Pre-contact and early European exploration

• Indigenous peoples have lived in what is now Canada for thousands of years. Today’s Indigenous population in Canada includes descendants of the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples.
• The First Nations were made up of diverse nations, each with unique languages, customs, and governance systems, often matrilineal.
• Many communities engaged in extensive trade networks and practised agriculture, hunting, and gathering, all deeply connected to their spiritual beliefs honouring the land.
• The Métis emerged from the intermarriage of Indigenous peoples and European settlers, creating a distinct culture that blended both traditions. Their role in the fur trade was pivotal, and they developed a unique language, Michif, combining Indigenous and European influences. Métis communities were typically organised around family ties, emphasising kinship and resilience.
• The Inuit, living in the Arctic regions, adapted to some of the harshest environments on earth, constructing igloos for winter shelter and using kayaks for hunting. Their lifestyle centred on hunting marine mammals, such as seals and whales, and their social structures relied on strong cooperation within extended family groups for survival.
• 1534: In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European explorers, including John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) from Italy and Jacques Cartier from France, arrive in Canada. Their arrival sets off a wave of changes, bringing new technologies and Christianity, and ultimately lead to significant cultural disruption and new diseases, like smallpox and measles, which devastate Indigenous populations.

Colonial expansion and Indigenous resistance

• 1608: Samuel de Champlain, often called the ‘Father of New France’, establishes a settlement in the area now known as Quebec, which becomes the capital of New France. Champlain’s alliances with local Indigenous tribes, such as the Huron-Wendat, against mutual enemies like the Iroquois Confederacy, set the tone for early French-Indigenous relations that were built on trade and mutual benefit.
• 1756: The French and British fight for control of Canada in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, with the British ultimately gaining control after the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). Indigenous nations play critical roles in these conflicts, often aligning with either the French or British to protect their territories.
• 1759: British forces under General James Wolfe defeat French forces in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, leading to British control of Quebec.
• 1763: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 establishes British control over much of North America and recognises the rights of Indigenous peoples to their lands. This proclamation sets a boundary for settlers, but enforcement is often inconsistent.
• 1774: The Quebec Act of 1774 grants religious and language rights to French-speaking Catholics in Quebec but also expands Quebec’s boundaries to include the Ohio River Valley, angering American colonists.
• 1775–1783: The American Revolution leads to an influx of Loyalist refugees to Canada, particularly to Nova Scotia and what is now Ontario. The Loyalists bring new governance ideas and agricultural practices which often clash with Indigenous land use.
• 1791: The Constitutional Act creates Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) and grants limited representative government.
• 1812: The War of 1812, fought between the United States and Britain, sees significant battles take place in Canada and contributes to a growing sense of Canadian nationalism. Indigenous nations, particularly Tecumseh and his confederacy, are allies in resisting American expansion.
• 1831: The first Church-run Indian residential school opens, marking the beginning of the Canadian-Indian Residential School System, a network of boarding schools designed to isolate Indigenous children from their cultures and families with the intent to assimilate them into Euro-Christian norms.
• 1840: The Act of Union merges Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, with a single government and legislature.
• 1840s: A wave of immigration to Canada, particularly from Ireland and Scotland, begins alongside the growth of industrialisation and the construction of railways. These changes facilitate greater settlement and resource extraction, leading to increased pressures on Indigenous lands.
• 1867: On 1 July 1867, with the passage of the British North America Act, the Dominion of Canada is officially established as a self-governing entity within the British Empire, uniting Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia into one entity named Canada. 1 July will later become known as Canada Day.
• 1870: The province of Manitoba is established, following the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel. This rebellion was a direct response to the Canadian government’s encroachment on Métis land.
• 1876: The Indian Act is passed, a law that consolidates various laws concerning Indigenous peoples. This act significantly restricts the rights of Indigenous communities and is used to control many aspects of their lives.

Confederation and colonial policies

• 1885: The Northwest Rebellion, led by Louis Riel and the Métis people, breaks out in late March. Numerous battles occur, but ultimately, the Métis people are outnumbered by government forces and surrender by early June, leading to Riel’s execution. The rebellion was driven by disputes over Métis land rights and government neglect. Many Métis families are displaced, losing their lands and livelihoods, which further compounds their cultural and economic struggles.
• 1885: The Canadian Pacific Railway is completed, connecting the country from coast to coast and solidifying national unity.
• 1894: Attendance at day schools, industrial schools, or residential schools becomes compulsory for children of Indigenous families. Due to the structure of communities, residential schools are often the only viable option, resulting in widespread loss of cultural identity and severe psychological and physical abuse that will reverberate through generations.
• 1896: Gold is discovered in Yukon, leading to the Klondike Gold Rush. Roughly 100,000 prospectors migrate to the area over the next two years in search of gold. Indigenous communities face displacement, and traditional hunting and fishing grounds are severely impacted.
• 1905: Saskatchewan and Alberta become the newest provinces of Canada, further expanding Canadian control over the western territories, which often involve negotiating treaties under pressure and land dispossession for Indigenous peoples.
• 1910: The Laurier-Greenway Compromise is reached, establishing French and English instruction in Manitoba schools. This compromise represents ongoing tensions over language rights in Canada.
• 1935: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) is established as a political party advocating for social welfare programmes, laying the foundation for modern social democracy in Canada.

World Wars and sociopolitical change

• 1914–1918: The First World War sees significant Canadian involvement, with thousands of soldiers fighting in Europe and the Canadian Corps achieving major victories at Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele. More than 620,000 Canadians serve in the war, with the country suffering a loss of 60,000 soldiers and 170,000 wounded.
• 1920s: A period of economic growth and social change, including the introduction of women’s suffrage and the rise of jazz and other cultural movements.
• 1930s: The Great Depression hits Canada, leading to mass unemployment and widespread poverty.
• 1931: The Statute of Westminster grants Canada legislative independence, allowing them to make laws without British approval.
• 1939–1945: World War II sees Canada join the war effort, with over 1 million Canadians serving in the military. The country loses 44,000 lives during the war.
• 1945-1947: Post-war immigration sees Canada welcome many displaced people from Europe, contributing to the country’s cultural diversity and growth.
• 1949: Canada becomes a founding member of NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, reinforcing its commitment to international security during the Cold War era.
• 1962: Canada abolishes racial immigration quotas, shifting towards a points-based immigration system that fosters a more multicultural society.

Post-war development and Indigenous activism

• 1949: Newfoundland joins Canada as the 10th province. Unfortunately, the Terms of Union make no specific provisions for the Innu, Inuit, and Mi’kmaq. As a result, these groups are not legally recognised as Indigenous under the federal Indian Act, depriving them of access to many rights and benefits that other Indigenous communities across Canada receive.
• 1950s–1960s: Significant social and cultural changes take place, including the Quiet Revolution in Quebec, the introduction of universal healthcare, and the growth of the civil rights movement. These changes reshape Canadian society and governance.
• 1960: The Canadian Bill of Rights is enacted, providing a legal framework for protecting individual rights and freedoms.
• 1960s: The Quiet Revolution in Quebec marks a time of significant social change across Canada. Indigenous communities begin advocating more vocally for recognition, self-determination, and land claims.
• 1967: Canada celebrates its Centennial, marking 100 years since Confederation. The celebrations help foster a greater sense of national identity and pride.
• 1969: The federal government proposes the ‘White Paper’, which seeks to eliminate the special legal relationship between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian state, effectively promoting assimilation. This policy faces strong opposition from Indigenous communities and leaders, leading to the eventual withdrawal of the White Paper.
• 1970: The October Crisis occurs in Quebec, involving the FLQ (Front de libération du Québec), which kidnaps government officials. The War Measures Act is invoked, leading to a significant domestic security response.
• 1972: The ‘Indian Control of Indian Education’ policy is articulated, marking a major shift as Indigenous leaders call for control over their own educational systems.
• 1980: Quebec holds an independence referendum, with 60 percent of votes indicating a preference to remain part of Canada.
• 1981: Patriation negotiations occur, culminating in the 1982 Constitution Act. The negotiations involve key discussions between the federal and provincial governments to reach consensus on Canada’s sovereignty.
• 1982: The Constitution Act is passed, patriating Canada’s constitution and establishing the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
• 1987: The Free Trade Agreement between Canada and the United States of America is signed.
• 1990: The Oka Crisis, an armed standoff between Mohawk protestors, Quebec police, and the Canadian army, marks an important moment of Indigenous resistance against government policies regarding land rights.
• 1995: A second independence referendum is held in Quebec. The campaign to remain part of Canada wins, but the margin of victory is much narrower at 50.5 percent.
• 1999: Nunavut is established, representing an important milestone in Indigenous self-governance and recognition in the Arctic region.

Reconciliation and modern Canada

• 2001: Canada joins the US-led war in Afghanistan, committing 2,500 troops to the conflict.
• 2005: Same-sex marriage is legalised in Canada, making it the fourth country in the world to do so.
• 2008: The Canadian government establishes the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to address the legacy of the residential schools.
• 2008: Prime Minister Stephen Harper issues a formal apology for the residential school system, acknowledging the harm caused and validating the experiences of survivors.
• 2011: Canada becomes the only country to repudiate the Kyoto Accord, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This decision was controversial, given the global effort to combat climate change.
• 2015: Canada celebrates 150 years of Confederation. Justin Trudeau becomes prime minister, focusing on climate change, reconciliation with Indigenous peoples, and diversity and inclusivity.
• 2017: The Canadian government agrees to pay reparations to Indigenous people who were taken away from their families as children and placed into residential schools.
• 2018: Canada becomes the first G7 country to legalise recreational marijuana use. This is seen as a progressive move aligning with broader attitudes towards personal freedom and social change.
• 2019: Justin Trudeau’s Liberal Party is re-elected to a minority government, reflecting a continued focus on progressive policies amidst growing political challenges.
• 2019: The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG) Report is published, highlighting systemic violence against Indigenous women and calling for action to address these injustices.
• 2020: The Covid-19 pandemic hits Canada, killing more than 51,000 people and leading to lockdowns and significant economic damage.
• 2021: The discovery of hundreds of unmarked graves at former residential school sites, starting in Kamloops, BC, brings global attention to the legacy of the Residential School System, sparking renewed calls for accountability and reconciliation.
• 2022: The Freedom Convoy protests take place in Ottawa and across Canada, sparked by Covid-19 vaccine mandates. The federal government invokes the Emergencies Act for the first time in Canadian history to deal with the situation.
• 2022: Pope Francis visits Canada in July to apologise to Indigenous communities for the Catholic Church’s role in the Residential School System, marking a significant step in the reconciliation process.